Democracy | PSIR Optional for UPSC

Introduction

• Democracy (demos 'people' and kratos 'rule') refers to two forms of government: The most common form in which the people have the authority to choose their governing legislators and the original form in which the people have the authority to decide on legislation.
• Democracy is a political system in which power is vested in the people, who exercise it directly or through elected representatives.
• It is characterized by principles such as political equality, majority rule, and protection of individual rights and freedoms.
• Democracy also means government by consent that is elicited through periodic competitive elections that register voters‟ decision in a free and fair manner. Election is the key mechanical process through which democracy functions but what is more important is the condition under which a citizen gets the information, for  the opinion of the governed is the real foundation of all government‟. 
• Democracy is a condition where a community of people exercises collective self determination.
• Through democracy, members of a given public demos take decisions that shape their destiny jointly, with equal rights and opportunities of participation and without arbitrarily imposed constraints on debate.
• Given the paucity of space democracy is essentially participatory, consultative, transparent and publicly accountable, By one mechanism &another, democratic governance rests on the consent of the governed.
• Democracy is constructed In relation to context and should be reconstructed when that context changes.
• A political system in which people vote directly on policy issues or through elected officials that represent them.

Origin

• The word democracy itself is of Greek origin.
• The Greek word demokratia is a combination of the words demos (meaning the people) and kratos (meaning rule).
• This gives democracy its meaning as a form of government in which the people rule, whether directly - through personal participation - or indirectly, through elected representatives.
• The main difference between ancient and modern democracies, of course, is in the way in which 'the people' were defined.
• In the ancient Greek polity, the 'demos' was rather restrictively defined, and notably exclude three main categories of persons: the slaves, women, and metics (the foreigners who lived and worked in the city-state).
• This meant that barely a quarter of the total population were members of the citizen body.

Definition

• According to Schmitter and Karl, modern political democracy is defined as "a system of governance in which rulers are held accountable for their actions in the public realm by citizens, acting indirectly through the cooperation of their elected representatives".

Varied meanings have been attached to the word ‘democracy’. Some of them are as follows:

• A form of government in which people rule directly;
• A society based on equal opportunity and individual merit, rather than hierarchy and privilege;
• A system of decision-making based on the principle of majority rule;
• A system of rule that secures the rights and interests of minorities by placing checks upon the power of the majority;
• A means of filling public offices through a competitive struggle for the popular vote;
• A system of government that serves the interests of the people regardless of their participation in political life.
• A system of government based on the consent of the governed.

Thinkers’ Perspectives on Democracy

• Schumpeter famously describes democracy in terms of a competitive strugglefor the popular vote. (Schumpeter, 1967). 
• Bobbio defines a minimal democracy as characterised by aset of rules about who is eligible to vote, the rights of political parties and free and frequent elections; and aset of rules which establish who is authorised to ruleand which procedures should be applied. 
• Benn and Peters suggestthat democracy means that ‘every claim should be givena hearing. 
• Beetham (1991), in another example, defines democracyin terms of political equality and popular control. 
• As Sartori (1995,) puts it succinctly, liberalism stands for „freeing the people‟ and democracy for "empowering people”; demos-protection meaning safeguarding people from tyranny and arbitrariness, and demos-power meaning the implementation of popular rule.  
• Plato: Plato, in his work "The Republic," expressed skepticism towards democracy, arguing that it tends to degenerate into mob rule and is susceptible to demagoguery.
• Locke emphasized the importance of individual rights and limited government in a democratic society, advocating for the protection of life, liberty, and property.
• Alexis de Tocqueville: Tocqueville highlighted the potential dangers of democratic individualism, warning against the tyranny of the majority and the erosion of social cohesion.
• Robert Dahl: Dahl focused on the concept of polyarchy, emphasizing the significance of political participation, competition, and inclusiveness in a democratic system.

Democracy and M.K. Gandhi

Introduction

• Gandhi's name is globally associated with non-violent civil disobedience, advocating peaceful resistance against injustice.
• His approach was rooted in the belief that non-violence is the most powerful weapon for oppressed people in their struggle for justice.

Key Aspects

Anarchist Ideals:

• Vision of Stateless Society: Gandhi envisioned a society where life is self-regulated without the need for a coercive state apparatus.
• Perfection of Life: In his ideal stateless society, individuals would achieve moral and ethical perfection, living in harmony without external governance.

Understanding of Democracy:

• Equality in Opportunity: Gandhi believed that true democracy offers equal chances to both the weak and the strong.
• Acceptance of Democracy: While Gandhi acknowledged democracy as a great institution, he emphasized minimizing its potential for misuse.

Concept of Swaraj:

• Self-Rule: For Gandhi, Swaraj meant self-governance by the consent of the people, involving both men and women who contribute to the state.
• Education and Empowerment: He believed that true self-rule could only be achieved by educating the masses to control and regulate authority responsibly.

Pillars of Democracy:

• Freedom and Justice: Gandhi's ideal democracy was built on the pillars of freedom and justice, ensuring welfare and equal treatment for all.
• Trusteeship Theory: This theory proposed that wealth and resources should be managed as a trust for the benefit of society, fostering social justice and healthy relations.

Fundamental Rights and Duties:

• Preference to Duties: Gandhi prioritized duties over rights, believing that a focus on duties would naturally lead to the fulfillment of rights.
• Ahimsa-Based Swarajya: In a non-violent society, Gandhi argued that understanding and performing one's duties was more crucial than claiming rights.

Conclusion

• Anarchist Beliefs within Democratic Framework: Although Gandhi had anarchist ideals, he recognized democracy as a suitable form of government to ensure welfare, justice, and empowerment.
• Balancing Rights and Duties: His vision included a balance where individuals enjoyed their rights by adhering to their duties, contributing to a just and equitable society.

Types of Democracy

Direct Democracy

• Direct Democracy is a form of self-government in which all collective decisions are taken through participation of all adult citizens of the state in the spirit of equality and open deliberations.
• Deliberations or discussions are important because decisions arrived at through discussions are better informed, logical and rational.
• This is because discussions allow a group to reconcile different interests, inform members about various issues and draw on the group’s expertise.
• According to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, the important aspect of direct democracy is the mechanism that “all command each and each in his turn all”.
• Its modern manifestation is the referendum. ‘Gram Sabha’, as envisaged in the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, is an instance of direct democracy in rural India.

Principles governing Direct Democracy:

• People are sovereign.
• Sovereignty is inalienable and cannot be represented.
• People must express their general will and make decisions directly through referenda.
• Decisions are to be based on majority rule.

Merits of Direct Democracy:

• It heightens the control that citizens can exercise over their own destinies, as it is the only pure form of democracy.
• It creates a better informed and more politically sophisticated citizenry, and thus it has educational benefits.
• It enables the public to express their own views and interests without having to rely on self-serving politicians
• It ensures that rule is legitimate in the sense that people are more likely to accept decisions that they have made themselves.

Representative Democracy

• Since direct democracy is not possible in large and complex societies, the mechanism there which people take part indirectly in government is through electing representatives to carry out their will. For early social contract theorists, such as Hobbes and Locke, representative government was a form of government authorised by the people to act on its behalf.
• For Rousseau, however, sovereign power over the state should rest in the hands of the citizenry and its "general will''. because the opinions and interests of representatives could never be identical to those of the electorate.
• Be that as it may, today representative government - based on the majority principle - is considered the best way of giving effect to the democratic impulse.
• It has, however, two types of critics, those who consider it unrealistic (Schumpeter and the elite theorists) and those who consider it inadequate (participatory democrats, discussed in the next section).

Participatory Democracy

• The classical theory of participatory democracy is found in the writings of Rousseau and John Stuart Mill.
• Rousseau's theory depends upon the participation of every individual citizen in political decision-making. The relationship between citizens is one of interdependence, such that each individual is equally dependent upon all the others viewed collectively as sovereign.
• Participation is important not only in decision-making, but also as a way of protecting private interests and ensuring good government. For Mill, as for Rousseau, participation has an educative function for citizens.
• Popular democratic government is Mill's ideal polity, in which participatory institutions foster active citizenship and a public-spirited character. This is the mechanism through which the individual is made to take public interest into account and to make decisions guided by the idea of the common good, rather than by his own selfish interests. Thus, democratic institutions - especially local ones - are "a school of political capacity".

Deliberative Democracy

• Deliberative democracy values open and public deliberation on Issues of common concern.
• It starts from the assumption of individuals as autonomous persons, but does not view the social relationships between these autonomous persons as relationships of conflict or interest.
• Rather, it sees people as relating to each other and seeking to influence each other through reasoned argument and persuasion.
• For advocates of deliberative democracy, persuasion is the best basis for political power, because it alone respects the autonomy of individuals and values their capacity for self-government.
• It also gives individuals control over an important aspect of their lives, and makes for greater and continuous accountability of political power.
• Unlike participatory democracy, which requires individuals to be constantly engaged in making decisions, deliberative democracy allows for a political division of labour between citizens and professional politicians, though citizens are involved in deliberation about public issues.

Social democracy

• Social democracy is a form of democracy that is based on a strong commitment to equality.
• Social democrats, therefore, support the idea of the welfare state based on redistribution.
• They believe in the liberal institutions of representative democracy, but wish to combine these with the ideal of social justice.
• To the extent that liberalism frequently takes the form of right-wing libertarianism - a belief in the unfettered freedom of the individual and the free market - social democracy is more egalitarian than liberalism.
• However, it is less radical than Marxian socialism and may be said to stand at the intersection of these two ideologies.

Characteristics/Features of Democracy

1. Existence of the Constitution.
2. Popular participation in politics.
3. Legitimacy.
4. Periodic elections.
5. Separation of power.
6. Checks and balances.
7. Existence of political parties.
8. Equality before the law.
9. Fundamental human rights.
10. Press freedom.

1. Existence of the Constitution:

• A written or unwritten constitution serves as the supreme law of the land.
• Purpose: It outlines the framework for governance, protects citizens' rights, and limits government power.

2. Popular Participation in Politics:

• The active involvement of citizens in the political process.
• Forms: Includes voting, protesting, joining political parties, and civic engagement.
• Significance: Ensures that the government reflects the will of the people.

3. Legitimacy:

• The recognized right of a government to rule, based on the consent of the governed.
• Source: Achieved through free and fair elections and adherence to the rule of law.
• Importance: Ensures stability and acceptance of authority by the populace.

4. Periodic Elections:

• Regularly scheduled elections allow citizens to choose their representatives.
• Characteristics: Elections must be free, fair, and competitive.
• Purpose: Provides a mechanism for accountability and change of leadership.

5. Separation of Power:

• Division of government responsibilities into distinct branches: executive, legislative, and judiciary.
• Function: Prevents the concentration of power and enables each branch to function independently.
• Goal: Ensures that no single branch becomes too powerful.

6. Checks and Balances:

• A system where each branch of government has powers to check the actions of the others.
• Purpose: Prevents abuse of power and ensures mutual accountability among branches.
• Examples: Judicial review, executive veto, and legislative oversight.

7. Existence of Political Parties:

• Role: Political parties aggregate and represent diverse interests and ideologies.
• Function: They provide choices to voters, formulate policies, and facilitate governance.
• Significance: Essential for a healthy democratic process, offering a platform for political competition.

8. Equality Before the Law:

• Principle: All individuals, regardless of status, are subject to the same legal standards.
• Importance: Ensures fairness in the application of laws and protects against discrimination.
• Legal Framework: Enforced through an independent judiciary and transparent legal processes.

9. Fundamental Human Rights:

• Rights: Include freedom of speech, assembly, religion, and the right to a fair trial.
• Protection: Guaranteed by the constitution and international human rights conventions.
• Role in Democracy: These rights enable citizens to participate fully in the democratic process.

10. Press Freedom:

• The right of the media to report news and express opinions without censorship.
• Importance: Critical for informing the public, holding the government accountable, and fostering public debate.
• Challenges: Includes threats from censorship, state control, and attacks on journalists.

Role of people in Democracy

(a) Participation:

• The key role of citizens in a democracy is to participate in public life.
• The most commonly observed opportunity of participation is exercising the right to vote during elections.
• And in order to vote wisely it is necessary that each citizen listens to and knows the views of different parties and candidates, and then makes his or her own decision on whom to vote for.
• It is also learnt that in many cases the percentage of voting is still low.

(b) Making the System Accountable:

• Citizens have to make the democratic system responsive and responsible.
• The Constitution makes the executive responsible to the legislature, but citizens are needed to ensure that the Parliamentarians, Members of State Legislatures and their representatives in Panchayati Raj and Municipal Institutions are accountable.

(c) Fulfilling Obligations:

• Many people tend to regard democracy as a system where literally everything is allowed.
• And every person has the freedom to do whatever one desires.
• This often leads to a complete chaos that devastates the order of the society rather than improving it. In that way it leads to the opposite effects of democracy.

Merits of Democracy

Democratic peace theory:

• This theory posits that democracies are hesitant to engage in armed conflict with other identified democracies.
• Numerous studies have found that liberal democracies have never made war with one another. Recent research finds that democracies have few militarized interstate disputes, and that democracies have few civil wars.

Reduced political violence:

• In Power Kills, Rudolph Rummel asserts that democracy minimizes political violence and is a method of nonviolence.
• As per Rummel, democracy instils an attitude of tolerance of differences, and an acceptance of losing and a positive outlook towards conciliation and compromise.

Human development:

• Democracy correlates with a higher score on the Human Development Index and a lower score on the human poverty index.

Economic growth:

• Statistically, more democracy correlates with a higher gross domestic product (GDP) per capita.
• Except for East Asia, during the last fifty years poor democracies have grown their economies 50% more rapidly than nondemocracies.
• Also, of the eighty worst financial catastrophes during the last four decades, only five were in democracies.

Transparent system:

• A democratic system may provide better information for policy decisions. Undesirable information may more easily be ignored in dictatorships, even if it provides early warning of problems.
• Anders Chydenius sites freedom of the press as a major factor for transparency, which is an important pillar of democracy.

Replaces inefficient system:

• The democratic system provides a way to replace inefficient leaders and policies, which is difficult in autocracies.

Corruption:

• World Bank suggests that political institutions are extremely important in determining the prevalence of corruption.
• Long term democracy, parliamentary systems, political stability and freedom of the press are associated with lower corruption.

Criticism

• Dictatorship of the bourgeoisie: Marxists argue that liberal democracy under capitalist ideology is constitutively class-based. Hence, it can never be democratic or participatory. It is referred to as bourgeois democracy because ultimately politicians fight only for the rights of the bourgeoisie.
• Low voter turnout: It is due to disenchantment, indifference or contentment with the status quo, or in extreme cases the legitimacy of the electoral system. Low turnout may prompt questions as to whether the results reflect the will of the people.
• The process of policy making is too complex and not as transparent or fair as classical liberals hoped or assumed it would be.
• Ethnic and religious conflicts: There exists sharp ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural divisions. A democracy allows mass participation in decision-making, hence it also allows the use of the political process against 'enemy' groups.
• Plutocracy: The cost of political campaigning in representative democracies favors the rich, a form of plutocracy. Only a very small number of wealthy individuals can actually affect government policy in their favor and toward plutonomy.
• Authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is perceived as a direct threat to the liberalised democracy. According Larry Diamond, Marc Plattner and Christopher Walker, liberal democracies introduce more authoritarian measures to counter authoritarianism itself; Eg. monitoring elections, more control on media etc.
• Media: Concentration of media ownership leads to distortions of democratic processes. In Manufacturing Consent, Herman and Chomsky argue that via their Propaganda Model, the media limits the availability of contesting views and creates a narrow spectrum of opinion.
• Criticism of the classical liberal case for democracy is that it is based on political equality but economic inequality.
• Short-term focus: Modern democracies allow for regular changes of government, which led to their short-term focus. In four or five years the government will face a new election. It encourages such policies that bring short term benefits to the electorate before the next election, rather than unpopular policy with longer term benefits.
• Exploitation of resources: As per Herman Hoppe, short-termism leads to over exploitation of temporarily accessible resources by the ruling group or to self-interested politicians. He contrasted this with hereditary monarchy, in which a monarch has an interest in preserving the long-term capital value of property of his state.
• Unstable political system and Frequent change of laws: Monarchist critique claims that democracy encourages the elected representatives to change the law without necessity (Herbert Spencer in The Man Versus The State). New laws restrict the scope of the previously private liberties. Rapidly changing laws make it difficult for a willing citizen to remain law-abiding.
• Vast bureaucracy: A multiplicity of laws may be an invitation for law-enforcement agencies to misuse power. The bureaucracy in democracies is often criticised for slowness and complexity of their decision-making. The term "red tape" is a synonym of slow bureaucratic functioning that hinders quick results in a democracy.
• Majoritarianism: The tyranny of the majority is the fear that a direct democratic government, reflecting the majority view, can take action that oppresses a particular minority. An often quoted example of the "tyranny of the majority" is that Adolf Hitler came to power by "legitimate" democratic procedures.
• Terrorism: Terrorism is most common in nations in countries transitioning from autocratic governance to democracy. Nations with strong autocratic governments and governments that allow for more political freedom experience less terrorism.
• Effective response in wartime: Democracy could be a disadvantage for a state in wartime, when a fast and unified response is necessary. The legislature usually must give consent to start an offensive military operation, although sometimes the executive can do this on its own while keeping the legislature informed.

Democracy in India

• In India, the idea of democracy came with colonial rule but conferred subjecthood without citizenship on the Indian people.
• Colonial rule kindled the aspiration of Indians to become a nation of free and equal citizens and led to the formation of a political party, the Indian National Congress.

Key Aspects of Indian Democracy

1. Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic:

• Sovereign: India is an independent entity not subject to any external control.
• Socialist: The state aims to reduce inequality in income, status, and standards of life.
• Secular: No state religion; equal treatment of all religions.
• Democratic: Governance is by elected representatives of the people.
• Republic: The head of state is an elected or nominated president, not a hereditary monarch.

2. Parliamentary System:

• Bicameral Legislature: Comprises the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
• Executive Accountability: The executive branch, headed by the Prime Minister, is accountable to the legislature.
• Prime Minister: The head of government, usually the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha.

3. Fundamental Rights and Duties:

• Fundamental Rights: Include the right to equality, freedom, protection against discrimination, and cultural and educational rights.
• Fundamental Duties: Responsibilities of citizens, including respecting the Constitution and national symbols, promoting harmony, and protecting the environment.

4. Directive Principles of State Policy:

• Guiding Principles: These principles guide the state in making policies aimed at establishing a just society.
• Economic and Social Welfare: Include provisions for securing equitable distribution of wealth, improving public health, and promoting education.

5. Federal Structure:

• Division of Powers: Powers are divided between the central government and state governments.
• Constitutional Provisions: The Constitution provides for a strong central government with significant powers but also ensures autonomy for states in their respective jurisdictions.

6. Independent Judiciary:

• Judicial Review: The power of the courts to interpret the Constitution and invalidate any law that contravenes constitutional provisions.
• Supreme Court: The apex court, which serves as the guardian of the Constitution.
• High Courts and Subordinate Courts: Operate under the supervision of the Supreme Court.

7. Universal Adult Franchise:

• Voting Rights: All citizens above the age of 18 have the right to vote, regardless of caste, religion, or gender.
• Periodic Elections: Regular elections ensure the renewal of the mandate of the representatives and accountability.

8. Role of Election Commission:

• Independent Body: Ensures free and fair elections.
• Election Administration: Responsible for the conduct of elections to the Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.

9. Role of Political Parties:

• Multi-Party System: India has a diverse and vibrant multi-party system.
• Coalition Politics: Due to the diversity of political views, coalition governments are often formed.

10. Decentralization and Local Governance:

• Panchayati Raj: Empowerment of local self-government in rural areas.
• Urban Local Bodies: Municipalities and corporations that govern urban areas.

Challenges to Indian Democracy

Illiteracy:

• The level of education of citizens is a key to both the successful functioning of democracy and socio-economic development of the country.
• Literacy is necessary not simply for enabling citizens to participate in elections and exercise their right to vote effectively, it has other important implications as well.
• Literacy enables citizens to be aware of various issues, problems, demands, and interests in the country.
• It also makes them conscious of the principles of liberty and equality of all and ensures that the representatives elected by them truly represent all the interests in the society.

Poverty:

• It is generally said that for a hungry person right to vote does not have any meaning.
• For him/her the first requirement is food. Therefore, poverty is considered as the greatest bane of democracy.
• It is, in fact, the root cause of all kinds of deprivations and inequalities.

Gender Discrimination:

• Discrimination against girls and women exists in every walk of life.
• You must have had such experiences of prevailing gender inequality in our society and polity.
• But we know that gender equality is one of the basic principles of democracy.

Casteism:

• The caste system acts against the roots of democracy.
• The democratic facilities like fundamental rights relating to equality, freedom of speech, expression and association, participation in the electoral process, free media and press, and even legislative forums - are misused for maintaining casteist identity.

Communalism

• It is an affront to India’s nationalist identity and a tragic setback to its evolving secular culture.
• It is subversive of our democratic political stability and destroyer of our glorious heritage of humanism and composite culture.

Religious fundamentalism:

• It also reinforces communalists in exploiting both religion and politics.
• Religious fundamentalists vehemently oppose progressive reforms in order to establish their exclusive control over their respective communities.

Regionalism:

• Indian democracy has also been struggling with regionalism which is primarily an outcome of regional disparities and imbalances in development.
• It is not always correct to consider every attempt to support or defend regional or sub-regional interests as divisive, fissiparous and unpatriotic.
• The problem begins when these interests are politicized and regional movements are promoted for ulterior political motives.
• Such unhealthy regional or sub-regional patriotism is cancerous and disruptive.

Corruption:

• Corruption is rampant in all walks of life, be it land and property, health, education, commerce and industry, agriculture, transport, police, armed forces, even religious institutions or so called places of spiritual pursuits.
• Corruption continues to exist in covert and overt ways at all three levels - political, bureaucratic and corporate sector.

Criminalization of Politics:

• Criminalization of politics is the very negation of democratic values and has no place in a democratic set up.
• Democracy can be strengthened by adopting and promoting democratic values and shunning criminal activities.

Political Violence:

• In India we have been witnessing various forms of violence. Communal violence, caste violence and political violence in general have attained serious proportion.
• A serious conflict of interests has emerged between higher and middle castes and this has led to aggressive competition for political power which many a time leads to violence.