WILDLIFE | Biogeography Optional for UPSC

Introduction

• Wildlife is a term that refers to undomesticated animals.
• It now includes all organism that grow or live wild in area without being introduced by humans.
• The term was also synonymous to game i.e those birds and mammals that were hunted for sport.
• Distinct forms of wildlife are found everywhere from deserts, plains, grasslands, woodlands, forests, to most developed urban areas.

Types of Wildlife

1. Terrestrial Wildlife

• Refers to animals that live on land.
• Includes mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects.
• Found in various habitats such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and mountains.
• Terrestrial wildlife plays a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem balance and biodiversity.
• Examples include lions in Africa, kangaroos in Australia, and bears in North America.

2. Aquatic Wildlife

• Refers to animals that live in water.
• Includes fish, marine mammals, crustaceans, and sea turtles.
• Found in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, and wetlands.
• Aquatic wildlife is essential for marine ecosystems and provides food for many human communities.
• Examples include dolphins in the ocean, salmon in rivers, and manatees in coastal waters.

3. Aerial Wildlife

• Refers to animals that primarily live in the air.
• Includes birds, bats, and insects.
• Found in various habitats such as forests, grasslands, and urban areas.
• Aerial wildlife plays a crucial role in pollination, seed dispersal, and controlling insect populations.
• Examples include eagles soaring in the sky, bats hunting for insects at night, and butterflies migrating long distances.

Distribution of Wildlife

1. Global Distribution Patterns

• Endemism: Some species are found only in specific regions due to unique environmental conditions. For example, the kiwi bird is endemic to New Zealand.
• Migration: Many species migrate across continents to find suitable habitats for breeding or feeding. For example, the Arctic tern migrates from the Arctic to the Antarctic and back each year.
• Latitudinal gradients: Biodiversity tends to increase towards the equator due to warmer temperatures and higher productivity. For example, the Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world.
• Altitudinal gradients: Biodiversity also tends to decrease with increasing altitude due to harsher conditions. For example, the Himalayas have a wide range of species adapted to different altitudes.
• Oceanic distribution: Marine species are distributed based on factors such as temperature, salinity, and nutrient availability. For example, coral reefs are found in tropical waters with high levels of sunlight.

2. Wildlife in Different Biomes

• Tropical rainforests: Home to a diverse range of species adapted to high temperatures and rainfall. For example, the Amazon rainforest is home to jaguars, sloths, and toucans.
• Deserts: Harsh environments with limited water and vegetation, leading to specialized adaptations. For example, the Sahara Desert is home to camels, scorpions, and desert foxes.
• Grasslands: Open habitats with grasses and scattered trees, supporting grazing animals and predators. For example, the African savanna is home to lions, zebras, and elephants.
• Tundra: Cold, treeless regions with permafrost, inhabited by species adapted to extreme cold. For example, the Arctic tundra is home to polar bears, Arctic foxes, and caribou.
• Mountains: High-altitude habitats with diverse ecosystems due to varying climates and elevations. For example, the Andes mountains are home to spectacled bears, condors, and llamas.
• Oceans: Marine biomes with a wide range of habitats such as coral reefs, kelp forests, and deep-sea trenches. For example, the Great Barrier Reef is home to colorful fish, sea turtles, and sharks.
• Wetlands: Waterlogged areas with high biodiversity due to the presence of water and nutrients. For example, the Everglades in Florida are home to alligators, manatees, and wading birds.
• Forests: Dense habitats with tall trees and understory vegetation, supporting a variety of wildlife. For example, the Boreal forest is home to moose, wolves, and lynx.

3. Wildlife Hotspots

• Biodiversity hotspots: Regions with high levels of species richness and endemism that are under threat from human activities. For example, the Western Ghats in India is a biodiversity hotspot with many endemic species.
• Coral reefs: Marine ecosystems with high biodiversity and productivity, supporting a wide range of fish and invertebrates. For example, the Coral Triangle in Southeast Asia is known for its diverse coral reefs.
• Rainforests: Lush habitats with high levels of biodiversity due to the complex structure and abundance of resources. For example, the Congo Basin rainforest in Africa is a hotspot for primates and birds.
• Islands: Isolated habitats with unique species that have evolved in isolation from mainland populations. For example, the Galapagos Islands are known for their endemic species such as the giant tortoise and marine iguana.
• Grasslands: Open habitats with a variety of species adapted to grazing and predation. For example, the Serengeti in Africa is a hotspot for large mammals such as lions, elephants, and wildebeest.
• Freshwater ecosystems: Rivers, lakes, and wetlands with high biodiversity due to the presence of water and nutrients. For example, the Amazon River basin is a hotspot for freshwater fish and aquatic plants.
• Arctic regions: Cold environments with unique species adapted to extreme cold and ice. For example, the Arctic Circle is a hotspot for polar bears, Arctic foxes, and seals.
• Coastal areas: Habitats along coastlines with diverse ecosystems supporting a variety of marine and terrestrial species. For example, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia is a hotspot for marine life such as coral, fish, and sea turtles.

Wildlife in India

Major Wildlife Habitats in India

1. National Parks:

• National parks are large areas of land set aside for the conservation of wildlife and their habitats.
• They are managed by the government and have strict regulations to protect the flora and fauna within their boundaries.
• National parks in India are home to a wide variety of species, including endangered ones.
• These parks are popular tourist destinations and provide opportunities for wildlife viewing and ecotourism.
• Some national parks also serve as research and education centers for studying wildlife and their behavior.
• Example: Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand

2. Wildlife Sanctuaries:

• Wildlife sanctuaries are protected areas where wildlife is given refuge and protection from hunting and poaching.
• They are smaller in size compared to national parks but serve a similar purpose of conserving biodiversity.
• Wildlife sanctuaries in India are important for the conservation of endangered species and their habitats.
• These sanctuaries also provide opportunities for research and education on wildlife conservation.
• Some wildlife sanctuaries are also open to tourists for wildlife viewing and photography.
• Example: Ranthambore Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan

3. Biosphere Reserves:

• Biosphere reserves are designated areas that aim to conserve biodiversity while promoting sustainable development.
• They are managed by a combination of government agencies, local communities, and conservation organizations.
• Biosphere reserves in India are important for protecting unique ecosystems and species.
• These reserves serve as living laboratories for studying the interactions between humans and the environment.
• They also promote research, education, and awareness about conservation and sustainable development.
• Example: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka

4. Reserved and Protected Forests:

• Reserved and protected forests are areas of land set aside for the conservation of forests and wildlife.
• They are managed by the forest department and have regulations in place to prevent deforestation and illegal activities.
• Reserved and protected forests in India are crucial for maintaining ecological balance and providing habitat for wildlife.
• These forests also play a key role in regulating climate, water resources, and soil fertility.
• They are important for the survival of many plant and animal species, including endangered ones.
• Example: Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala

Notable Wildlife Species in India

1. Mammals:

• Bengal Tiger: India is home to the largest population of Bengal tigers in the world, with reserves like Ranthambore and Bandhavgarh being popular for tiger sightings.
• Indian Elephant: The country has a significant population of Indian elephants, with sanctuaries like Jim Corbett National Park providing a safe haven for these majestic creatures.
• Indian Rhinoceros: The Kaziranga National Park in Assam is known for its population of Indian one-horned rhinoceros, a species that is critically endangered.
• Snow Leopard: Found in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas, the snow leopard is a rare and elusive species that is protected in reserves like Hemis National Park.

2. Birds:

• Indian Peafowl: The national bird of India, the Indian peafowl is a common sight in the country, known for its vibrant plumage and distinctive calls.
• Great Indian Bustard: This critically endangered bird is found in the grasslands of India, with efforts being made to conserve its dwindling population.
• Indian Paradise Flycatcher: Known for its long, flowing tail feathers, the Indian paradise flycatcher is a beautiful bird that can be spotted in forests and wooded areas.
• Sarus Crane: The tallest flying bird in the world, the sarus crane is revered in Indian culture and can be seen in wetlands and agricultural fields.

3. Reptiles:

• King Cobra: The longest venomous snake in the world, the king cobra is found in the forests of India, particularly in the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats.
• Indian Python: This non-venomous snake is one of the largest species of snakes in the world and can be found in a variety of habitats across India.
• Gharial: A critically endangered species of crocodile, the gharial is known for its long, thin snout and can be found in rivers like the Ganges and the Chambal.
• Indian Star Tortoise: This species of tortoise is known for its distinctive star-shaped patterns on its shell and is found in dry regions of India.

4. Marine Wildlife:

• Humpback Whale: These majestic creatures can be spotted off the coast of India during their annual migration, particularly in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Olive Ridley Sea Turtle: India is home to one of the largest nesting populations of olive ridley sea turtles, with beaches in Odisha being important nesting sites.
• Whale Shark: The largest fish in the world, the whale shark can be found in the waters of India, particularly in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
• Dugong: Also known as the sea cow, the dugong is a marine mammal that can be found in the waters of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, where it feeds on seagrass.

Wildlife Interaction with Human

1. Human-wildlife conflict:

• As human populations and demand for space continue to grow, people and wildlife are increasingly interacting and competing for resources, which can lead to increased human-wildlife conflict.
• Conflict can result in the decline and potential eradication of species, communities can experience financial losses and threats to health and safety, livelihoods, food security, and property.
• The illegal wildlife trade has been linked to the emergence and spread of new infectious diseases in humans, including emergent viruses.

2. Food source:

• Stone Age people and hunter-gatherers relied on wildlife, both plants and animals, for their food.
• hunting, fishing, and gathering wildlife is still a significant food source in some parts of the world.

3. Economic asset:

• Wildlife products such as skins, bones or meat etc are highly in demand for their various special properties.
• Wildlife trade refers to trade in the products that are derived from non-domesticated animals or plants usually extracted from their natural environment or raised under controlled conditions.
• Wildlife has also been used as a subject for educational tv shows.
• Various nations use wildlife as an element of tourism as well which contribute in boosting their GDP growth.

4. Religious significance:

• Many animal species have spiritual significance in different cultures around the world.
• They and their products may be used as sacred objects in religious rituals. 
• For example, eagles, hawks and their feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to Native Americans as religious objects. In Hinduism the cow is regarded as sacred.

Challenges faced by wildlife

Natural suffering:

• Wild animal suffering is the suffering experienced by nonhuman animals living outside of direct human control.
• This is due to harms such as disease, injury, parasitism, starvation and malnutrition, dehydration, weather conditions, natural disasters, and killings by other animals, as well as psychological stress.
• Natural suffering has been described as an unavoidable consequence of Darwinian evolution and the pervasiveness of reproductive strategies.

Suffering due to human interaction:

• Exploitation of wild populations has been a characteristic of modern man.
• This has increased loss of animals and rate of extinctions of entire species of plants and animals across the planet.
• The loss of animals from ecological communities is also known as defaunation.

Here are the most general reasons that lead to destruction of wildlife.

Overkill/poaching/culling:

• Overkill means hunting at rates greater than the reproductive capacity of the population. 
• Hunting is done for wildlife trade, food and entertainment purpose. 

Habitat destruction and fragmentation:

• The habitat of any given species is considered its preferred area or territory. 
• Many processes associated with human such as agriculture, industrial development etc cause loss of habitat area and decrease the carrying capacity of the land for that species. 
• In many cases these changes in land use cause a patchy break-up of the wild landscape. 
• These smaller lands are also unable to support large number of species due to limited resources.

Impact of introduced species:

• species that are uncommon in their home range become out-of-control invasions in distant but similar climates.
• This increases the competition for resources and is detrimental for native species. 
• Introduction of species can be as a biocontrol, economic and entertainment purposes.

Chains of extinction:

• As all animals are part of a food chain, destruction of one species affect the dependent species as well. 
• It is also referred as Domino effect and is most destructive.

Other factors:

• Pollution, increased human population, deforestation, Climate Change etc.

Current status

• Biologists estimate there are between 5 and 15 million species of plants, animals, and micro-organisms existing on Earth today, of which only about 1.5 million have been described and named.
• Today, about 23% (1,130 species) of mammals and 12% (1,194 species) of birds are considered as threatened by IUCN.
• According to various surveys and reports, our planet has lost more than 58% of its wildlife since 1970 and is experiencing the sixth mass extinction. 
• The 2016 Living Planet Report reveals the troubling extent of this and other environmental crises around the world, but it also sheds light on the ways we can still protect and rehabilitate what’s left. 
• An index compiled with data from the Zoological Society of London to measure the abundance of biodiversity was down 58 percent from 1970 to 2012 and would fall 67 percent by 2020 on current trends, the WWF said in a report.

Conservation of Wildlife

• Wildlife plays an important role in balancing the ecosystem and provides stability to different natural processes of nature.
• Wildlife conservation is the practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitat. 

Methods

• Habitat management: Conservation, restoration, protection from invasive species.
• Endangered and keystone species protection. 
• Ex-situ efforts: seed banks and cryopreservation.
• Poaching prevention.
• Wildlife Monitoring.

Conservation Efforts

1. International Efforts:

1. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

• CITES is an international agreement between governments aimed at ensuring that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
• Example: CITES has helped in regulating the trade of endangered species such as elephants, rhinos, and tigers.

2. WWF (World Wildlife Fund)

• WWF works on various conservation projects around the world to protect endangered species and their habitats.
• Example: WWF has been instrumental in the conservation of species like the giant panda and the snow leopard.

3. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature)

• IUCN is a global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it.
• Example: IUCN Red List provides information on the conservation status of species worldwide.

4. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

• The UN has included wildlife conservation as part of its Sustainable Development Goals to ensure the protection of biodiversity.
• Example: Goal 15 aims to protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems.

2. National Efforts in India:

1. Project Tiger

• Project Tiger was launched in 1973 to protect the Bengal tiger and its habitat.
• Example: The project has helped in increasing the tiger population in India from around 1,400 in the 1970s to over 2,200 in recent years.

2. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

• The Wildlife Protection Act provides legal protection to wildlife and their habitats in India.
• Example: The Act has helped in curbing illegal poaching and trade of endangered species.

3. National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries

• India has established a network of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries to protect its diverse flora and fauna.
• Example: Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand is one of the oldest national parks in India and is home to a variety of wildlife species.

4. Eco-tourism Initiatives

• India has promoted eco-tourism as a way to generate income for local communities while also conserving wildlife.
• Example: Kaziranga National Park in Assam has successfully implemented eco-tourism initiatives to support conservation efforts.

3. Conservation Legislations in India

• Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: This act provides for the protection of wildlife and their habitats in India. It prohibits hunting, poaching, and trade of endangered species.
• Forest Conservation Act, 1980: This act aims to protect forests and wildlife by regulating the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes.
• Biodiversity Act, 2002: This act focuses on the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources in India. It promotes the equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of these resources.
• National Wildlife Action Plan: This plan outlines strategies and action points for wildlife conservation in India. It aims to address threats to wildlife and their habitats through various conservation measures.

4. Role of NGOs and Community Participation

Awareness and Education: 

• NGOs play a crucial role in raising awareness about wildlife conservation among the public. They conduct campaigns, workshops, and outreach programs to educate communities about the importance of protecting wildlife.
• Example: Wildlife Trust of India conducts awareness programs in local communities to promote coexistence with wildlife and reduce human-wildlife conflicts.

Conservation Projects: 

• NGOs often collaborate with government agencies and local communities to implement conservation projects on the ground. These projects may include habitat restoration, anti-poaching efforts, and community-based conservation initiatives.
• Example: WWF-India works with local communities in the Sundarbans to protect the habitat of the Bengal tiger and conserve mangrove forests.

Advocacy and Policy Influence: 

• NGOs advocate for stronger conservation policies and laws at the national and international levels. They work to influence decision-makers and policymakers to prioritize wildlife conservation in their agendas.
• Example: Wildlife Conservation Society-India has been instrumental in advocating for the protection of key wildlife habitats and species in India through policy interventions.

Community Participation: 

• Engaging local communities in wildlife conservation efforts is crucial for the long-term success of conservation initiatives. NGOs work with communities to involve them in decision-making processes and empower them to take ownership of conservation efforts.
• Example: The Corbett Foundation works closely with communities living around Corbett Tiger Reserve to promote sustainable livelihoods and reduce human-wildlife conflicts.

Protected Area Network

1. Importance of Protected Areas: 

• Protected areas play a crucial role in wildlife conservation by providing safe habitats for endangered species and preserving biodiversity. They also help regulate human activities that may harm wildlife and their habitats.
• Example: Yellowstone National Park in the United States is a protected area that provides a safe haven for a variety of wildlife species, including grizzly bears and wolves.

2. Connectivity and Corridors: 

• Protected areas are often connected through wildlife corridors, which allow animals to move between different habitats. This connectivity is essential for maintaining genetic diversity and ensuring the survival of wildlife populations.
• Example: The Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania is connected to other protected areas through wildlife corridors, allowing animals such as elephants to migrate freely.

3. Management and Enforcement: 

• Protected areas require effective management and enforcement to ensure that wildlife and their habitats are protected. This can include anti-poaching patrols, habitat restoration efforts, and monitoring of wildlife populations.
• Example: The Serengeti National Park in Tanzania has strict regulations in place to protect wildlife, including bans on hunting and restrictions on human activities.

4. Collaboration and Partnerships:

• Protected areas often require collaboration between governments, NGOs, local communities, and other stakeholders to ensure effective conservation efforts. Partnerships can help leverage resources and expertise to protect wildlife and their habitats.
• Example: The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia is managed through a partnership between the government, NGOs, and local communities to protect the reef and its marine life.

Global efforts

• In 1972, the Government of India enacted a law called the Wild Life (Protection) Act. 
• In America, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 protects some U.S. species that were in danger from overexploitation.
• The World Conservation Strategy was developed in 1980 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) with advice, cooperation, and financial assistance of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund and in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)”. 
• The strategy aims to “provide an intellectual framework and practical guidance for conservation actions.
• Legal wildlife trade is regulated by the United Nations' Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which currently has 184 member countries called Parties.

Wildlife and Sustainable Development

Biodiversity: 

• Wildlife plays a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, which is essential for sustainable development. Different species of plants and animals contribute to ecosystem services such as pollination, nutrient cycling, and pest control.
• Example: Bees are important pollinators that help in the reproduction of many plant species, including crops that are essential for human survival.

Ecotourism: 

• Wildlife can be a major attraction for ecotourism, which can provide economic benefits to local communities and contribute to sustainable development. Protected areas and wildlife reserves can generate revenue through tourism activities.
• Example: The Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya attracts thousands of tourists each year who come to see the diverse wildlife, providing income for local communities.

Climate regulation: 

• Wildlife plays a role in regulating the climate by sequestering carbon and maintaining ecosystems that help mitigate the impacts of climate change. Forests, wetlands, and oceans are important habitats for wildlife that contribute to climate regulation.
• Example: Mangrove forests provide habitat for a variety of wildlife species and help sequester carbon, reducing the impacts of climate change.

Sustainable agriculture: 

• Wildlife can play a role in sustainable agriculture by providing natural pest control services and contributing to soil fertility. Bats, birds, and insects are important for controlling pests in agricultural systems.
• Example: Barn owls are natural predators of rodents that can damage crops, making them valuable allies for farmers in pest control.

Conservation partnerships: 

• Collaboration between governments, NGOs, local communities, and businesses is essential for wildlife conservation and sustainable development. Partnerships can help address threats to wildlife such as habitat loss, poaching, and climate change.
• Example: The Global Tiger Initiative brings together governments, conservation organizations, and businesses to work towards the conservation of wild tiger populations.

Sustainable resource management: 

• Wildlife resources such as fish, timber, and medicinal plants can be managed sustainably to ensure their long-term availability. Sustainable harvesting practices and protected areas can help conserve wildlife resources.
• Example: The sustainable management of fisheries in marine protected areas can help ensure the long-term viability of fish populations and support the livelihoods of fishing communities.

Indigenous knowledge: 

• Indigenous communities often have traditional knowledge about wildlife and ecosystems that can contribute to sustainable development. Incorporating indigenous perspectives in conservation efforts can help protect wildlife and support local livelihoods.
• Example: Indigenous communities in the Amazon rainforest have knowledge about medicinal plants and sustainable hunting practices that can help conserve biodiversity.